Bloggin' the 28: The Life, Death and Resurrection of Christ

By Ron Osborn

Centuries before Jesus’ birth, Jewish apocalyptic writers, struggling to understand the theological meaning of Israel’s exile in Babylon, concluded with paradoxical audacity that pagan oppression was the result not of YHWH’s weakness but of his actual justice and strength: Israel was being punished by the Creator God for its failure to keep the covenant. (28) Things would grow progressively worse, Jewish eschatology predicted, until a final, decisive moment when God would at last send a warrior-prince to restore his Chosen People to their rightful place among the nations. Jewish apocalyptic literature used cosmic and fantastic images to describe this future event, but Jewish hopes were firmly rooted in the realm of concrete, earthly politics. When God’s kingdom arrived, it would be plain for all to see by three material facts: 1) the Davidic monarchy would be restored in Jerusalem with unparalleled justice and prosperity; 2) the Temple would be rebuilt with unsurpassed splendor; and 3) the downtrodden Jews would emerge a triumphant superpower with their pagan enemies humiliated and defeated beneath them.

Jesus shared many of the basic assumptions of this traditional Jewish eschatology. He declared that oppression would increase before finally being  overcome by God’s saving activity (Mark 13.7-13). He urged his disciples to be steadfast and courageous in the face of evil (Matthew 10.16-42). And he taught them to pray not for a “spiritual” kingdom somewhere in the sky but for God’s kingdom to come “on earth as it is in heaven” (Matthew 6.10). When Jesus talked about the kingdom, though, he did not talk about it in the future tense. Israel was still suffering under foreign oppression, economic injustice and religious corruption. Jesus talked about the kingdom like it had already arrived. Even more shocking, the Gospel writers record, Jesus talked and acted like the kingdom was happening in him and through him. “But if I cast out demons by the finger of God,” Jesus said, “then the kingdom of God has come upon you” (Luke 11.20).

Jesus’ kingdom announcement implied that conventional Jewish eschatology, with its vision of two successive historical ages, was either deeply flawed or had been gravely misread. Hebrew apocalyptic literature had depicted the coming of YHWH’s kingdom as a dramatic, earthshattering event that would radically divide the old aeon from the new. But Jesus declared, against all of the seeming evidence, that the kingdom of God was an already present, in-breaking reality, manifest in his own life and program of miraculous healings, and best grasped through metaphors of secrecy, simplicity and subversion. The kingdom, Jesus said, is not like a conquering army but like a mustard seed that inexorably consumes the garden (Luke 13.19). It is like the yeast or leaven that invisibly causes bread to rise (Matthew 13.38). It is like a pearl of great price hidden in a field so that only the passionate seeker will find it (Matthew 13.46).

In first-century Palestine, anyone talking about “the kingdom” was, by this fact alone, treading on perilous political ground. Caesar Augustus had already staked out Rome’s exclusive claim to kingdom vocabulary, and the cult of the emperor brooked no rivals. Caesar was, according to one public inscription, “the beginning of all things”; “god manifest”; the “savior” of the world who “has fulfilled all the hopes of earlier times”; the one whose birthday “has been for the whole world the beginning of the good news (euangelion)”. (29) We should not be surprised, then, that Jesus encoded his kingdom politics in parables, metaphors, riddles and cryptic sayings that did not explicitly defy Roman rule. But for those who had ears to hear, mustard seeds and pearls of great price were the rhetoric of a revolution. Jesus—the true Savior of the world—was calling for his followers to embody YHWH’s actual kingdom of compassion and justice as over and against Lord Caesar’s blasphemous parody. He was telling them to incarnate God’s reign in history by building a new kind of community—a countercultural “polis on a hill” (Matthew 5.14)—that would stand in nonviolent but subversive opposition to all those forces responsible for grinding down the poor, the weak, the ritually unclean and sinners of every kind. The fact that Jesus calls for his followers to incarnate or embody God’s kingdom as a social reality in the present does not contradict but defines and animates Christian hope in the Parousia as a future event in space-time. According to John Dominic Crossan, Jesus proclaimed a sapiential as opposed to apocalyptic eschatology. Sapientia is the Latin word for “wisdom”, and according to Crossan Jesus offered human beings “the wisdom to discern how, here and now in this world, one can so live that God’s power, rule, and dominion are evidently present…rather than a hope of life for the future” (my emphasis). (30) But the Jesus of the New Testament—the only Jesus we know—offers his disciples both a Way of living that manifests God’s kingdom in the midst of the present reality and a hope for the future that invests this Way with its power and meaning. It is precisely because of their confidence in the Parousia that believers are free to live out the dangerous and demanding politics of the Gospel. Conversely, it is only the social witness of believers that manifests Jesus’ life and lordship over history to a watching world.

Absent such a witness, Martin Luther King Jr. saw, there can be no authentic Advent hope. “Any religion that professes to be concerned about the souls of men and is not concerned about the slums that damn them, the economic conditions that strangle them and the social conditions that cripple them is a spiritually moribund religion awaiting burial.”

“The Favorable Year of the Lord”: Economic Justice
In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus’ first action at the start of his public ministry is to enter the synagogue in his hometown of Nazareth and read from the prophet Isaiah: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me because he anointed me to preach the Gospel to the poor…to set free those who are downtrodden, to proclaim the favorable year of the Lord” (Luke 4.18-19). Only real debtcancellation would have come as real good news for real poor people, Ched Meyers points out. (33) When Jesus claims the “favorable year of the Lord” as central to his vocation he is therefore not assuming a “spiritual” as opposed to a political messianic role. He is, rather, directly alluding to a powerful vision of social justice contained in the Law of Moses that had been systematically suppressed and evaded by Israel’s ruling elites for hundred of years, an economic ethic that would have come as welcome news indeed to the impoverished and exploited peasant masses of
Galilee and Judea.

The “favorable year of the Lord” in Luke-Isaiah, Andre Trocmé and John Yoder show, is the Sabbath year or year of Jubilee commanded by God in the Hebrew Bible (particularly in Leviticus 25 and Deuteronomy 15). Every seventh year, according to the Covenant, Israel was to enact a program of radical debt forgiveness, and in the fiftieth year land redistribution to benefit the poor. Among God’s people, there was to be a systematic leveling of wealth on a regular basis and dismantling of what we would today describe as oppressive financial and banking institutions designed to maximize profits for creditors. Jesus does not attempt to instate these Jubilee commandments in a rigid or programmatic way, but he does reclaim the basic principles, metaphors and imagery of the Sabbath Jubilee for his followers.  He has more to say in the Gospels about issues of wealth and poverty than any other topic—and his message remains as challenging for those of us who live in affluent countries today as it was for the wealthy Herodians and Sadducees in first-century Palestine.

Against the assumptions of laissez-faire capitalism—which posits a world of unlimited human needs, individualism, and competitive rivalry for scarce resources—Jesus declares that we are stewards rather than owners of property, that God’s creation is abundant and our earthly needs limited, and that God’s liberation of Israel from slavery is normative for how we should treat the poor among us. His warnings against capital accumulation and “Lord Mammon” are unrelentingly severe (Matthew 6.16-24; Mark 10.23-25). He tells his followers to live lives of dangerous generosity, giving and expecting nothing in return (Luke 6.30). He tells them to forgive each other’s debts (Matthew 6.12), to not worry about their own material needs but to live out a lifestyle of trust and simplicity (6.25-34; 10.9-10). And he instructs them to actively pursue justice (23.23). Material care for the poor, the oppressed and the hungry, Jesus declares, is the primary mark of discipleship—and the only question at the final judgment (25.31-40).

Jesus’ radical economic teachings were epitomized among his early followers in the practice of “breaking bread”, which was not originally a rite of sacral liturgy or mystical symbolism but an actual meal embodying Jesus’ ethic of sharing in ordinary day-to-day existence. When the Holy Spirit is poured out at Pentecost in the book of Acts, the practical result is that believers voluntarily redistribute their property. “And all those who believed were together, and had all things in common; and they began selling their property and possessions, and were sharing them with all, as anyone might have need…breaking bread from house to house, they were taking their meals together with gladness and sincerity of heart” (Acts 2.44-46). The Apostle Paul also emphasizes the socio-political nature of the Lord’s meal, delivering a blistering rebuke to those upper-class Corinthians who excluded poor believers from their table fellowship and sated their own stomachs while other members of the community went hungry (1 Corinthians 11.18-22).

“You Are All One in Christ”: Equality in the Body of Believers
We can begin to see, then, why Jesus’ message had such an electrifying effect on the impoverished and socially marginalized peasants of first-century Palestine who flocked to hear him speak—and why he so frightened and angered those guardians of public “order” for whom divisions of wealth and class were a useful rather than an oppressive reality. But Jesus challenged not only structures of economic injustice and inequality in first-century Palestine. He
challenged patterns of social inequality, hierarchy and domination of every kind. In his treatment of women, of children, of Romans, of the ritually unclean and sinners of every stripe, Jesus repeatedly and provocatively overturned deeply ingrained cultural and religious assumptions about who was “first” and “last”, “above” and “below” in the eyes of God.

There is no place in God’s in-breaking kingdom, it turns out, for “great men” or “rulers” who “lord it over” others through the exercise of political or religious authority. Such, Jesus tells his disciples, is the way of the “Gentiles”, i.e., the pagan unbelievers and Romans occupiers. But among his followers, Jesus declares, “whoever wishes to become great among you shall be your servant and whoever wishes to be first among you shall be your slave” (Matthew 20.25-28; Mark 10.43). Jesus goes so far as to command his followers to avoid using honorific titles of any kind, including the title of “leader”. The only title Jesus permits is an address of familial equality and solidarity: “brother” (Matthew 23.6-10). In the polis of Jesus, the New Testament suggests, there simply are no individuals in positions of status or hierarchical control.

Instead of offices, the earliest Christian communities appear to have been ordered along quasifamilial lines and according to the idea of spiritual gifts, including gifts of teaching, preaching and stewardship. Spiritual gifts are charismatic, functional, provisional and divinely rather than humanly bestowed. They are not restricted to special classes, genders or tribes; for “There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free man, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ” (Galatians 3.28). The most prominent functionaries in the early church, the “elders” or presbyteroi who helped to preside over the households where the early Christians gathered, were to lead by humble example rather than by “lording it over” the younger believers (1 Peter 5.1-3). The title of “priest” or hiereus (the root from which the English word “hierarchy” derives) is not applied to any Christian in the Gospels or Pauline corpus (although in Romans 15.16 Paul does describe himself by way of metaphor as a minister who works “as a priest” presenting God with “my offering of the Gentiles”).  Jesus is the only person who is described (in the book of Hebrews) as a priest for the church; but he is the final priest who makes all priesthood obsolete—not merely the performance of ritual sacrifice, but the office, pomp and circumstance of priestly authority and hierarchy itself.

“Do Not Resist an Evil Person”: Nonviolent Enemy Love
It was the fatal error of many Latin American liberation theologians to conclude from Jesus’ concern for economic justice and his summons to radical, non-hierarchical community formation that the Way of Jesus may be harmonized with the way of violent revolt against oppressive social, economic and political structures. But Jesus of Nazareth, unlike Judas the Galilean, taught his disciples to turn the other cheek, to put away their swords and to love their enemies as themselves. Perhaps the most important hallmark of the politics of Jesus lies in his teaching and example of nonviolent enemy love.

Jesus’ ethic of nonviolence finds its fullest statement in the Sermon on the Mount, which is presented in Matthew’s Gospel in a programmatic fashion as the new Torah, a definitive moral charter to guide the community of believers. Jesus does not seek to negate or overturn the Law of Moses with his own novel teaching but to reclaim the deepest meaning of the Law by intensifying and internalizing its demands. The Law forbids murder, Jesus forbids even anger. The Law forbids adultery, Jesus forbids even lust. When it comes to the matter of violence, though, Jesus does not simply radicalize or intensify the Torah. On this point, and this point alone, he decisively alters and actually overturns the teaching of the Hebrew Bible: “You have heard that it was said, ‘An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.’ But I say to you, do not resist him who is evil; but whoever slaps you on your right cheek, turn to him the other also…You have heard that it was said, ‘You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy.’ But I say to you, love your enemies,  and pray for those who persecute you, in order that you may be sons of your Father who is in heaven” (Matthew 5.38-45).

The lex talionis—an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth—is spelled out in several passages in the Hebrew Bible but particularly in Deuteronomy 19.15-21. If in a criminal trial a witness gives a false testimony, the Law declares, that person must be severely punished in order to preserve the social order. “Show no pity: life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot” (v.21). Political stability is the goal and fear is the mechanism by which it will be achieved. Jesus shatters this strict geometry, however, with a startling injunction: “Do not resist an evil person.” This does not imply passive capitulation to violent people but physical nonretaliation as a dynamic and creative force in human relationships. By exemplifying the courage and forgiveness of the Beatitudes, the believer confounds and shames the aggressor, creating an opportunity for the hostile person to be reconciled with God. By absorbing undeserved suffering and not retaliating in kind, the disciple destroys the evil inherent in the logic of force. Instead of an endless cycle of bloodshed, fear and recrimination, there is shalom, there is peace. There is nothing sentimental, naïve, meek or mild about Jesus’ Way of dealing with  enemies.

When we recall the concrete historical realities of Roman occupation in first-century Palestine, the shocking and scandalous political implications of Jesus’ teaching of nonviolence immediately becomes clear. To grasp the forces now arrayed against Jesus and his fledgling kingdom movement we have only to imagine the fate that would befall a charismatic young man from a rural village in present day Iraq should he travel to Baghdad with a band of followers and begin publicly announcing that God, through him, was about to free the land from the yoke of foreign occupation—and that prominent imams and respected government officials were vipers and hypocrites—and that the insurgents should lay down their weapons and love their enemies as themselves. Subversive? Disturbing? Dangerous? Clearly. Yet this was precisely the path that Jesus followed in his perilous journey from Nazareth to Jerusalem.

Whether Jesus’ Way of nonviolent enemy love leads to an ethic of strict pacifism, as John Yoder convincingly argues, or whether it allows for Christians to engage in what Glen Stassen calls “just peace-making” (preventive or “policing” actions that involve use of force in exceptional cases but remain sociologically and morally distinct from the calculus of war-making), the presumption of the New Testament is therefore overwhelmingly against believers killing their fellow human beings for a “just cause”, whether as social revolutionaries (on the “Left”) or “just warriors” (on the “Right”). There is not one word in the New Testament to support Linda Damico’s claim that Jesus’ concern for the liberation of the poor led him to embrace “the violence of the oppressed”. We must ponder whether disciples can even legitimately serve as military chaplains insofar as chaplains are not allowed to fully proclaim Jesus’ teaching and example to soldiers but must ensure that “all efforts…maximize a positive impact on the military mission” and “enhance operational readiness and combat effectiveness.”

Against the above reading of Jesus’ kingdom announcement—as essentially subversive of  political authority, involving concern for matters of economicjustice and social equality and giving rise to a community of nonviolent nonconformity with power—some scholars have quoted Jesus’ aphorism, “Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s and to God the things that are God’s” (Mark 12.17). According to Geza Vermes, the saying indicates that Jesus was not concerned with the burning political matters of his day but remained a wandering, apolitical sage who only accidentally and somewhat naïvely stumbled into conflict with the Jerusalem authorities.43 Did not Jesus also say “My kingdom is not of this world”? Vermes’s reading  of Jesus as apolitical rustic rabbi fails, however, to account for the historical and narrative contexts for Jesus’ words and actions in the Gospels. When Jesus says his kingdom is not of this world he does not mean that his kingdom has nothing to do with this world; he means that his kingdom does not derive its tactics, platform or goals from any of the competing political movements of his day, and particularly from the zealots: “If my kingdom were of this world my servants would fight…but my kingdom is not from here” (John 18.36 NKJV, emphasis mine). Nor is “Render to Caesar the things that are  Caesar’s” an abstract teaching about the separation of political and religious matters. The aphorism is Jesus’ answer to a specific, historically-inscribed trap devised by a group of Pharisees and Herodians, whose goal is to force Jesus into one of their rival camps. The trap comes in the form of a question that appears to admit only one of two answers: Should Jews pay the poll tax to Caesar? If Jesus says they should pay the tax, he will have compromised with the Roman occupiers and betrayed his people. If he says that it is not right to pay the tax, he will have openly defied Caesar’s authority and be guilty of sedition along the lines of the zealots. But Jesus’ does not take either path in this false dichotomy. Instead, he deftly transcends and subverts the question.44 His reply contains irony, non-cooperation, indifference and even scorn.45 Bring me a denarius, he tells his inquisitors (Mark 12.15), showing that he is not himself in possession of “Lord Mammon” while at the same time forcing his questioners to reveal that they are the compromised bearers of Caesar’s image and divine title. Whose image and inscription is this?, Jesus then asks, as if he did not know. So it is the Pharisees and Herodians, not Jesus, who are forced to bear recognition to Caesar in the story. When told that the image is Caesar’s (v.16), Jesus at last declares that Caesar can keep his idolatrous scraps of metal: “Render to Caesar the things that Caesar’s”. But what are the things that truly belong to Caesar? Does Caesar have the right to wage wars, to impoverish nations and to inflict violence on God’s people? Not at all, Jesus’ listeners would have understood. Lord Caesar has no claim whatsoever on any human being; for human beings, unlike coins, are made in the image of God.

But what about the Apostle Paul’s statement in Romans 13 that God has ordained secular rulers as agents of his will, as “avengers” who do “not bear the sword for nothing” (v.3)? Do Paul’s letters—the oldest texts in the New Testament canon—in some way contradict, invalidate or “balance” Jesus’ seemingly more radical words and actions in the Gospels, which were written some 40 years later? According to Martin Luther, the book of Romans is the New Testament’s definitive statement on Christian politics, and it shows that we must serve God “inwardly” and  the secular authorities “outwardly”. “Therefore, should you see that there is a lack of hangmen,” Luther wrote in 1523, “and find that you are qualified, you should offer your services and seek the place”.46 Protestants have been offering their services ever since. Yet Romans 13, Luther failed to see, is part of the same literary unit as Chapter 12, which ends with these words: “Repay no evil for evil...Beloved, do not avenge yourselves, but rather give place to wrath; for it is written, ‘Vengeance is Mine, I will repay,’ says the Lord. Therefore: ‘If your enemy is hungry, feed him; If he is thirsty, give him a drink; For in so doing you will heap coals of fire on his head.’ Do not be overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good” (Romans 12.17-21). Next come the instructions about submitting to earthly authorities. But, lest there be any doubt on the matter, Paul returns to the theme of Christian nonviolence, driving his point home with systematic rigor. First, he instructs believers to render to all their due (13.7). Then he says that believers should owe no one anything except love (13.8). Next he defines what love is: “Love does no harm to a neighbor” (13.10). Read carefully, and in historical context, Paul is telling the early Christians in Rome, in the face of increasing persecution by a brutal and tyrannical pagan regime, to assume a nonviolent, nonrebellious
stance as their reconciling ministry. He is also telling believers to trust in God’s controlling power over history. God can use the secular authorities and their pagan armies for his own redemptive purposes and, ironically, even as instruments of his justice. That is God’s power and prerogative. But there is not one word in Romans—or anywhere else in Paul’s writings—to suggest that believers should volunteer to serve in Assyrian, Egyptian or Roman legions, or that violence is an acceptable tool for followers of the Way. Quite the opposite, Romans 13 makes clear: Christians are called to a different path. And it is precisely the political character of this path that explains the regularity and persistence of both Roman and Jewish persecution of the Jesus movement during the first three centuries of its growth: “Mere belief—acceptance of certain propositional statements—is not enough to elicit such violence. People believe all sorts of odd things and are tolerated. When, however, belief is regarded as an index of subversion, everything changes. The fact of widespread persecution, regarded by both pagans and Christians as the normal state of affairs within a century of the beginnings of Christianity, is powerful evidence of the sort of thing that Christianity was, and was perceived to be.”

Resurrecting the Life of Christ
When we strip away the layers of ritual, culture and abstract theology that have accreted to the Gospels over the past two thousand years, we thus find that although Jesus did not fit into any of the rival political categories or ideologies of his day—although he did not “run with the hares or hunt with the hounds” in Wright’s words—he was nevertheless deeply, in fact centrally, concerned with politics: with questions of power, money, allegiance and violence, and with the liberation of human beings from all forms of oppression, social and political as well as individual. For Jesus, the things that are God’s are not otherworldly things—the heretical, earth-denying claim of the Gnostics—but precisely this-worldly matters—matters of justice, mercy and community. Jesus’ political stance, Jacques Ellul and Vernard Eller convincingly argue, may best be described as that of an anarchist—not anarchist in the popular sense of advocating destruction of property or the violent overthrow of governments (as in Damico’s reading), but in the root sense of the word: an arche: no rulers, no dominion but God’s alone. The anarchist dimension of Christian discipleship does not remove but in many ways heightens the demands of citizenship in a secular polity since service to God cannot be separated from loving service to humanity, and because violent resistance to “Lord Caesar” is no longer an option. Still, “We must be faithful in our own way,” Stanley Hauerwas reminds us, “even if the world understands such faithfulness as disloyalty.” A church that does not stand “against the world” in fundamental ways, Yoder points out, “has nothing worth saying to and for the world.” Followers of Jesus are not called to defend the ramparts of “liberal democracy”, or any other political system or ideology. Nor are they called to create a “Christian nation” in which Christian leaders assume control of the means of violence and power and exercise them for righteous ends. Rather, they are called to incarnate the kingdom of God by modeling an alternative or “remnant” community of economic justice, equality and peace, with Jesus at its center. They are called to bear witness, amid all of the ambiguities and ironies of history, to the “minority report”: the good news that Jesus’ creative weakness is still God’s saving strength.

If true to their calling, followers of Jesus may expect to pay a high price for their political witness and their refusal to play a part in the mechanisms of violence and coercion that lie at the heart of every social order, including the project of American democracy (the imperial “beast” of Revelation 13 marked by its powers of shock and awe—making “fire come down out of heaven to the earth in the presence of men”—and by its control of the global economy—dictating who is “able to buy or to sell”). They will at times be charged with being unpatriotic, ineffective or irrelevant. Like the Anabaptists during the Protestant Reformation, they may face ridicule, social ostracism and even persecution for their nonconformity with power. In some times and places, they will lose their lives as a result of their obedience to their Master. For the Way of Jesus, is ultimately the Way of the Cross. “To accept the cross as his destiny, to move toward it and even to provoke it, when he could well have done otherwise, was Jesus’ constantly reiterated free choice,” writes Yoder. “The cross of Calvary was not a difficult family situation, not a frustration of visions of personal fulfillment, a crushing debt, or a nagging in-law; it was the political, legally-to-be-expected result of a moral clash with the powers ruling his society.”

Because the Way of Jesus is the Way of the Cross, the politics of Jesus only fully make sense to those who see the dilemmas of power in “cosmic perspective”, to those who are living in the light of Jesus’ resurrection as the historical fact upon which the once-hidden meaning of the universe hinges. “As a mundane proverb, ‘Turn the other cheek’ is simply bad advice,” Richard Hays points out. “Such action makes sense only if the God and Father of Jesus Christ actually is the ultimate judge of the world and if his will for his people is definitely revealed in Jesus.” Put another way, because following Jesus—not simply as a matter of individual spirituality but as a matter of concrete community formation—may involve real sacrifice, suffering and even martyrdom, and because there is no guarantee that this suffering will be politically effective as the world measures effectiveness, there is no reason to follow the Way of Jesus unless the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith are one and the same. If Roman brutality left Jesus buried somewhere in the hills of Palestine alongside all the other messianic revolutionaries of his day, “Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die” (1 Corinthians 15.32). But if Jesus is who the New Testament writers say he is—the suffering Savior of the world who has overcome the principalities and powers and has defeated the final tyranny which is death—then let us “be imitators of God” (Ephesians 5.1), bearing a more faithful witness to the Way of Jesus and the political shape of his life.

Ron Osborn is a PhD candidate in political philosophy at the University of Southern California. This article -- with restored footnotes -- will appear in a forthcoming issue of Spectrum.

Comments

[Chris Blake]

Ron, thank you for this probing piece. Your exegesis of Romans 13 is particularly enlightening and helpful.

[Zane]

Amen...This is a cogent, lucid exposition of "kingdom" theology. As Adventists, our read of the gospels has tended to ignore the present aspects of Jesus' kingdom proclamation/teaching, misreading it as it were only talking about the future end of the world.

[Ryan Bell]

Amazing! Thank you, Ron. This is a gift. I'm sure when this is published in the journal, folks will see that the bibliography and/or footnotes comprise a year or more worth of essential reading. Thanks for distilling your work with these issues.

But I have a question.... When it comes down to real Christians coming to terms with the meaning of 'witness' in real communities around the world, what is the role of the cross? Another way to ask this, maybe, is this: what you have written here is a powerful, political Christology. What kind of soteriology issues from this Christology. I have ideas about this myself, but I'm painfully curious what you would say about this. Wish I was traveling with you; we could discuss it as we bounced along on the bus.

[Buffy Turner]

Excellent unpacking and exposition of the "sapiential" beside the "apocalyptic eschatology," Ron. Thanks.

[Arlyn]

This article felt like a gourmet meal- satisfying and deep!

Ron, you wrote "Among God’s people, there was to be a systematic leveling of wealth on a regular basis and dismantling of what we would today describe as oppressive financial and banking institutions designed to maximize profits for creditors."

I am not sure the first part of this sentence rests fully on the second. Cancellation of debts and return of inherited land doesn't level wealth. The rich still get to keep accumulated movable assets, the poor get a breather and a second chance to be industrious (work the land or invest it again) Isn't it closer to declaring bankruptcy (getting creditors off one's back) and giving them some capital/skills to restart a life?

leveling wealth is a treasured social goal of some, but I'm not sure the Bible actually is advocating this.

[Arlyn]

"By absorbing undeserved suffering and not retaliating in kind, the disciple destroys the evil inherent in the logic of force."

Absorbs and destroys the evil? Holocaust, genocide, massacre, martyrdom.

Evil and force illogically march on.

[Joselito Coo]

"Jesus is the only person who is described (in the book of Hebrews) as a priest for the church; but he is the final priest who makes all priesthood obsolete—not merely the performance of ritual sacrifice, but the office, pomp and circumstance of priestly authority and hierarchy itself."

Just thinking about the ecclesiological implication and application of this to Adventist polity: one that has been and is still patterned after the US federal system consisting of a hierarchy of overseas divisions/unions and a North American central administration.

[Anthony]

This was a very enlightening article and has some very powerful implications for the way we view our lives and especially the way in which we view our country--the world's lone superpower. Sadly, it is very difficult to not get discouraged about the efficacy of non-violence. For every Gandhi, there are hundreds of poor Indian women about to be bayonetted by Custer's troops or some other military power. Thus your last paragraph is important, because it is essential that we keep the faith and retain hope that God is a powerful actor in history and has a plan for us all. Unfortunately, this is difficult to do and it is hard not to get too discouraged. Also, I am interested in how this type of outlook plays into the traditional Adventist understanding of the Great Controversey. Should we expect defeat after defeat with the anti-Christ being the most powerful incarnation of exactly what Jesus isn't? Then finally with the Second Coming we are liberated from all these trials. This is a very difficult plight to imagine and almost makes it seem like each of us who truly try to follow in Christ's footsteps with radical generosity and the same type of anarchic outlook will suffer some similar type of fate--until the Second Coming.

[Arlyn]

Once again, the Jubilee concept is invoked in rosier tones than realistically. wake up. Any banker or lender with sense of the future would schedule a loan to come fully due on the year before Jubilee to minimize their loss. The year before the Jubilee would be harder for the poor to obtain credit. The year before the fiftieth would be stagnant for real estate sales. Then the year after these two events would be the busiest in exchange of lands and money. And I wouldn't be surprised if the negotiations for the exchanges were started before or during Jubilee to ensure future predictability of potential gain. Every economic incentive has secondary and tertiary effects. Especially regularily scheduled ones.

Is that being human and shrewd? yes. Is that ethical, is the real question.

Jesus told a parable about the king commending his shrewd/unrighteous manager and stated that (luke 16:8) the sons of this age were more prudent/shrewd in regard to their own kind than sons of the light. Shall we be less shrewd or more? This is a question for the pragmatic realist- how?

[Bob Rigsby]

Well, might as well add my voice to the chorus of praise for this essay; though I'd like to note a few particulars.

It is an easy trap to fall into to divide the world into oppressors and the oppressed. Victims and victimizers. This quickly gets translated into the rich/powerful being the cause of all suffering and strife leaving the poor and oppressed with no challenges but to teach and overthrow (even non violently) and shame those they view as their oppressors. If so viewed, they risk being immune from the inner transformations that Christ seems to demand from all.

"Don't participate in your OWN oppression" is often missed by those who see themselves AS oppressed. I realize it's fashionable to blame society and culture for ones own ills, and there is of course some validity to that. However, the choices and personal responsibility one exercises do in fact contribute to ones own condition. A good example (not mentioned here) might be the potential of "a systematic leveling of wealth" to create very irresponsible behaviors. If my credit card debt gets wiped out automatically every 7 years, might that not encourage profligate spending? Are we somehow immune from cause and effect in Christ's Kingdom? A shrewd, frugal saver ends up subsidizing those who have no such discipline in this scenario it seems to me. Is the lender always the oppressor and the lendee always the oppressed? I think not... Interestingly, in the Romans 13 section Ron mentions (13:8) "that believers should owe no one anything except love" which seems to make the same point I think.

So the gospel message to Christians is partly to act responsibly no matter WHERE you find yourself on the spectrum of life. Christian poor would not be active participants in creating their own state while Christian rich would not be active participants in needless accumulation. The poor need to be "good stewards" too don't forget.

Next, I'm just not sure about the NRA membership icon. Obviously an inside joke or something? Is this sarcasm, (I'm guessing not many on this site are members; I am) or somehow implying that the NRA endorses violence? Oh well...

Also the likening of Roman occupation with modern day Iraq simply weakens your point to make such a spurious analogy. Sure doesn't "work" for me.

While I do like the notion of the believer confounding and shaming the aggressor by his passive resistance, thereby creating an opportunity for the hostile person to be reconciled with God, there remains the strong possibility that, should this tactic be used in the struggle with radical Islamists, one has just committed suicide. I'm not certain that's what Christ was suggesting. At the same time, I'm also not sure at all that we HAVE come close to exhausting passive resistance alternatives as a country. Countries with really big guns and bombs seem far less likely to do this it seems. This seems almost explicitly an option for the weak -- which we as a nation are not. So this seems, necessarily, at it's core a very personal decision.

[Elaine]

Whether we are following Rome's imperialism, it has has been an example mentioned frequently throughout this country's history. We have certainly played as an imperialist power for more than a century. When was the last war on American soil fought against an invasion by another country? Haven't all the wars (excluding WW II) in which this country has engaged been on another country's soil and not to ensure our freedom but another country's freedom? Will we ever run out of similar situations to defend? Has American become both this world's police and freedom fighters? Have we not attempted to impose our brand of government on others by defining boundaries and attempting to influence their governmental decisions?

The U.S. has a most unique history in its settlement and designing of government. We also had to kill and destroy the native population in order to do so. Our hands are bloody and we cannot claim moral authority at all, if ever we were able to do so.

The Romans were able to spread their territory so remarkably because they allowed local control, so long as they received taxes and even fought their own battles; it would have been impossible for Rome to achieve their spread without turning over much of the control to local native populations. They also built roads and the ease of transportation allowed much easier marketing and trade. Whereas in Iraq, there is no history of national unity: in fact it is a "state" structured following WW I disregarding local tribal allegiances and has been a total failure. Saddam was only able to attain unity by murder and savagery. But what is occuring thre today if not the same? Has anyone calculated the number of civilian deaths since March 2003 with a similar number of years under Saddam? Is that a fair comparison? The civilians have paid the heaviest price and are still paying it today. The U.S. has not bettered their situation at all. And what is the possibility that it will be improved in the next few months?

No, I'm not an isolationist; but neither am I an imperialist. The threat during the Cold War had all of us living somewhat in a state of fear, but it dissolved when the economic stability was almost destroyed in the feverish struggle to maintain more military might than Russia. Look where we are now. How successful have all our warring endeavors been in the long run?

[Arlyn]

Elaine,
Using hard nosed economic pressures as an instrument of nonviolent influence is the best suggestion that I can fully agree with.

i.e. it did create a huge deficit for us when used against the USSR, but our economy confounds the experts and is still running well. It would have worked against Iraq but the food for oil program to shield the vulnerable worked right into Saddams' hands to keep him in power-thanks to France and Russia. It isn't enough to stop Darfur when China and Russia props up the Sudan (80%) and we are insignificant. It did get N.Korea's attention to put their bank under investigation- that set off the chain reaction of other banks voluntarily freezing their assets and now NK are not in the position to extort money from us to stop their nuclear program, but seem more compliant. So, in as far as possible- money still talks. (probably louder than protests, certainly more humane than guns)

Bob,
Thanks for seeing the practical implications of the Jubilee/Fiftieth year. I doubt anyone who understands economics would want that concept re-instated in our time once they thought it through. Which leaves me the question (since I optimistically think that God still had a reason- being the ultimate economist- to recommend the scheme) what realistic good was He trying to bring about despite the natural human reactions to such a plan?

It could be: 1. to limit the debt load to a 7 year reasonable (based on assets and income)amount for all. both in obtaining and what's offered as loans
2. to give everyone one second chance (55th year comes once in a lifetime) to have a break from bad choices that lead to extreme poverty. once.

Finally, great point about victimization as a virtuous stance. It isn't virtuous, just a tragedy. And focusing on what one can do for oneself is more virtuous than focusing on what one can do to shame/change the other.

[Arlyn]

About wealth leveling:

The rich will get richer- they are utilizing their abilities in a maximizing way and the spiral will naturally accelerate with better tools-internet. The servant with ten talents made twenty and then was rewarded ANOTHER bonus by his master. The middle class will also get what they worked for- 5+5=10. The lower class if diligent- will move into the middle, if not/or unable- will lose what little they have. So why is everyone surprised at the widening gap? Didn't the parable make that process clear?

The answer to the poor is to give opportunity to all, but if as in America most of the poor are emotionally and mentally unstable, disabled or on drugs, or choose to retain characterological traits that make them less employable- opportunity will not raise them. (This impression comes from serving the underserved for most of my career) Humane care and nurture is what's our christian duty then- not trying to make others what they are not. No matter how well intentioned we may be to dream our dreams for them.

So the widening gap of wealth? It's been happening since the start of creation. Addressing abuses of the system- by all means do! But to eradicate this spectrum reflecting human endeavor? Would it be just to keep everyone's education at the same level? Or to promote those who can't read? Access yes, redistribution, no. Should Ph.D programs be required to give away 40% of their resources to pre-school programs- thereby making the doctorate program even more (150%)expensive for applicants and less accessible due to this artificial government restraint? This is certainly a country's perogative, but, is it fair? And does it in the end help the country as a whole?

[Ed Guzman]

Ron,

I loved this post. You excellently developed the "here now" and "not yet" aspect of the kingdom. (Allen would be stunned)
It is thorough and one of the most ambitiously comprehensive essays I have every read. It's like a book prospectus.

I have a bit of a problem with those whole notion of separating the military action from being a living citizen of the United States.

Shouldn't we face the facts that we are fully complicit in military actions. The military industrial complex is not some random hi-tech killing posse that exists ex-nihilo. They are the physical manifestation of interests and policies already in place.
Even if you abstain from paying tax dollars, every living breathing citizen's name is written on the bullets and cluster bombs that kill abroad.

This is the turn. To counter the evils of imperialistic reality we need peaceful, but loud and radical opposition to not this action alone, but to the think, policies, economic and political interests that are symbiotic with our wealth as a nation and foundational to the evils of hostile action. Hostile action that sometimes finds it last recourse in bombs and bullets. Hostile action that finds its genesis in our comfort. But make no mistake, "the pen is mightier than the sword." Our hostile subversive action is as deadly and farther reaching then bombs.

Take for example the "coup de grace" delivered by US envoy to the Yemen representative on the UN security council after a no vote on a US resolution to enter Iraq: "No sooner had the Yemeni ambassador put down his hand after voting against the resolution, the U.S. ambassador was at his side saying “that will be the most expensive ‘no’ vote you ever cast.” Days later US 70 million dollar food aid package to Yemen was cut off."

Now if anything is harsh, anti-humankind, subversive, coercive or just plain evil, I think the aforementioned is a perfect example. The bombs and the bullets are for those that aren't willing to "play" with the same pieces.

My point is that the problem is systemic. Isolating the military as a anti-normative venue for Adventist chaplaincy on the grounds mentioned seem a little shortsighted, and assenting to a dualistic notion of American life. It's as if living in the US is potentially innocuous to the world stage, but the military is evil incarnate.
I think we all drink the water. And not just drink from it, but the "oppressive military action" is its natural corollary.

As for the chaplaincy positions, I think that is a private issue. There is no doubt that they ask you to edit out the troubling imperatives of the gospel. But the dynamic struggle of a bringer of the euangelion is perennial since the great commission; keeping on message, straddling the enticement of personalizing the gospel or crafting it to one's own or another's image(see: gnostic syncretism, Judaizers). Maybe despite the focus on the narrow parameters for ministering, military chaplaincy is a greater place to serve for precisely those reasons.

[Ed Guzman]

From whose perspective are we weighing the justice of this war?
Shiite, Sunni, or Kurd?

I absolutely have visceral disgust for the way the administration manipulated public trust and campaigned for entering into Iraq. The lies to get us to sign off on deposing a despot-that we used to stablize the region in the 80's-are convoluted and evil.

But lets do a perspectival shift. Once the military hit the ground and took control (arguable) of Iraq, the Kurds that had been persecuted as a people, tortured, and killed by various means including chemical weapons, were liberated.

Implicit in the phrase "just war" is the assumption that we have weighed all perspectives and have come to an objective understanding about the value behind this war.

I think this war is a mess because its inertia is found in a lie, because we fumbled it incredibly hard, and because innocent people are getting killed by military personnel that weren't properly educated past a fortress mentality about the diversity of the people and their customs in Iraq.

If we are using the current war as a model, the idea of determining the justice of this war seems a little "ini mini miny moe" to me.

[Dr. Thomas J. Zwemer]

Johnny

Please give us a citation that assures us that an ordained minister/priest of any denomination is allowed to fully proclaim Jesus' teachings and example in their own pulpit without fear of reprisals for "heterodoxy".

Tom

[Ed Guzman]

I don't know if Johnny was arguing for that position, but your point is a very strong point as the discussion in the blogger potluck salon is moving in that direction.

Permit me to quote you.

Ed G

[Dr. Thomas J. Zwemer]

Johnny

My point is simply that we are all contrained in some fashion or dimension. I don't think that one should judge another's accomodations. It is certainly proper to say: No thank you, not under these circumstances--I know not what course others might take but as for me and my house, we will serve the Lord, as we understand He would have us serve. I am personally glad, the U.S. see fit to recruit Chaplains. I personally wish that we where not so preemptive and aggressive in our world view. Thank God we live in a country that protects freedom of speech. Tom